REWILDING SPECIES – AN ANALYSIS BASED ON RSG REPORTS

Difficulties faced, lessons learned and factors for successes and failures of reintroduction projects.

1.      Introduction

The success of any reintroduction projects depend on many factors like the type of species one is working with, the technical knowledge of the re-introduction team, availability of the resources including the fund, proper policies and legislations and in particular the relevancy of the projects. There is no denying that many reintroduction projects are problematic and highly expensive that requires the involvement of many stakeholders from many government and non-governmental agencies with the follow up programs lasting many years to ensure success. As such, reintroductions projects are not simple and only the best of the best zoos in terms of everything (finance, human resources, policies etcetera) can do such programs.

Devra Kleiman in the manual Wild Mammals In Captivity, Principles, and Techniques (IUCN 1987) states that “attempts to reintroduce a species, if poorly conceived or implemented, may actually obscure the conservation issues that led to the decline of the species in the first  place  and thus may detract from, rather than add to, a species chances of survival.” Therefore, difficulties in reintroducing animals or plants back to the wild from captivity or botanic gardens are obvious.

According to Mark Stanley Price, ex-chairman of the IUCN Reintroduction Specialist Group, only large species that live in groupsup with few pillagers and those that can adapt to wide range of habitats can be easily reintroduced. Factors such as the risk of spreading diseases amongst the wild population (even of different species by the captive individuals, high mortality of reintroduced individuals once in wild conditions due to behavioural changes (finding no food, shelte,r etc.), and the habitat not supporting the new individuals must be considered for reintroduction projects. Otherwise, difficulties are inevitable.

In the last few years, IUCN’s (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) Reintroduction Specialist Group (RSG), an institution tasked to combat species extinction through re-introductions projects to re-establish sustainable animal and plant populations in their natural or original habitat, has done a commendable job. Since 2008, RSG has published four reports one each in 2008, 2010, 2011, and 2013 covering the reintroduction and reinforcement of many species of invertebrates, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mam,mals and plants (Table 1) in the wild. The reports specify and highlight the problems of reintroduction projects throughout the world and goes to the extent of rating them from being most successful to failures.

Table 1: Reintroduction projects reported by RSG 2008 to 2013

	2008	2010	2011	2013	Total
Invertebrates	4	9	3	2	18
Fish	7	6	11	4	28
Amphibians	3	5	5	1	14
Reptiles	8	7	8	3	26
Birds	17	13	5	10	45
Mammals	13	20	9	24	66
Plants	10	12	9	8	39
Total	62	72	50	52	236

Number of reintroduction projects by way of IUCN statutory 8 regions viz. North America and Caribbean, West Europe, South and East Asia, Oceania, West Asia, Africa, Meso and South America, East Europe and North and Central Asia are tabulated (Table 2) and graphically represented below (Figure 1).

Table 2. Projects by region

Statutory Regions	Number of Projects 2008-2014
North America & Caribbean	52
West Europe	44
South & East Asia	28
Oceania	46
West Asia	20
Africa	26
Meso & South America	9
East Europe and North & Central Asia	13

Most projects have been reported from NorthAmerican and Caribbean, an indication that tlots works are beingdone. The projects gets regetd towards Meso and South America for which further studies as to why species decline is not occurring in the regions or are going unreported must be ascertained.

Figure 1. Projects by region

The measure of success of all the projects as per the RSG reports are categorized as highly successful, successful, partially successful and ,failure for which a comparative analysis showed that most of the projects were successful. Therefore, there are minimum failures in reintroduction projects as visible from the consolidated success and failure table of the RSG reports (Table 3).

Table 3. Ratings for succthe ess of the project through 2008 - 2014

Ratings	2008	2010	2011	2013
Highly successful	21	12	27	19
Successful	33	46	27	42
Partially successful	43	36	43	37
Failure	3	6	2	1
Total Percent	100	100	100	100

Success by way of taxa is important and it is what the re-introducers want actually. The RSG reports suggest that in projects before 2008, only bird reintroductprojectsject failed. Other projects were either highly, successful or partially successful. However, the 2010 resuggestsggest that of the many successful projects, there were failures (apparently negligible) in reintroduction of mammals, amphibians and invertebrates. In 2011, there was a failure only in one of the amphibian projects, while a bird project apparently failed in 2013.

This report highlights the problems,and  lessons and looks at the reaforns of the success a failure of a few selected projects from the RSG publications.

2.      Difficulties, l,essons and reasons for success/failure in reintroducing animals

2.1. Invertebrates – The translocation of the red barbed ant from the Isles of Scilly to Chobham Common National Nature Reserve, Surrey, UK  (RSG 2013)

Major difficulties faced	Major llearned reasons	Reasons for success/failure:
• Bringing up large F. rufibarbis colonies from mated Queens in captivity oveperiods periods. • Competition from Lasius niger and  F. sanguinea in setting up nests in wild. • Lack of post-releafundsund for monitoring the long-term impact.	• Queen F. rufibarbis ants and workers kept successfully inex-situu conditions. But population growthis  small duesame-seasonason release schedules. • Lasius niger proved itself tothe  be greatest threat notwithstanding the fact the people believed Formica sanguinea to be the biggest threat. Because of the difficulties associated with rearing the larger F. rufibarbis translocations of whole nest may work better.	• Small colony size of the released. • Unanticipated competition/aggression from Lasius niger. • Limited funds/budget for post-release monitoring

2.2.      Fishes – Conservation of a unique bullhead population in Flanders, Belgium (RSG 2010)

Major difficulties faced major	Major lessons learned	Reasons for success/failure:
• The relict population still facing problems. Difficult to convince authorities to implement protection measures, even for species under Annex II of the Habitats Directive.  • Inadequate funding. • Locating re-introduction sites, since the ecological quality of most of the headstreams is still insufficient.	• Insufficient ecological quality of headstreaBullhead-like • Bullhead like species re-introduction feasible	• Reliable captive breeding. • The released fishes seen at the released sites with re-captured fishes showing good growth. • Natural recruitment was successful, but urgent measures may be taken to improve the habitat quality of the Dorpbronbeek for protecting and conserving the relict population

2.3.      Amphibians – Re-introduction of European tree frog in Latvia (RSG 2013)

Majfaced majorlties falearned reasons	Major lessons learned	Reasons for success/failure:
Difficulty in estimating the present sthe ize of population because of extended areis a. Information from local people minimal despite of network.	• Breeding under laboratory conditions can happen earlier than in the wild and the released froglets can have more time toa    adapt to natural conditions. Thus, much higher survival rate during the first winter can be createis d. Despite that, breeding of tree frogs enthused by hormonal injections. No growths in tadThe totalor froglet survival or growing rates.	Total area of population dispersal covered 800 - 900 km2 (Dunce & Zvirgzds, 2005) after reintroduction. Reports later showed that, it continues to expand.

2.4.      Reptiles – Translocation of giant tortoises in the Seychelles Islands (RSG 2011)

Major difficulties faced	Major lesslearned reasons	Reasons for success/ failure:
Lacks of support for tortoise conservation as development in Seychelles means conservation projects have no future security even on agreed plans. The consequences are that conservation depends on private islands, although these are also subject to management changes due to external economic factors.	• Re-introduction of tortoises practical and helpful to environmental restoration. • Need to advertise the role of tortoise in conservation to various agenciesthe Seychelles.	• Successful adaptation by adult tortoises at Grande Barbe with evidence of nesting. • Lack of support for tortoise conservation has prevented successful project implementations.

2.5.      Birds – Grey Partridge supplementations in Oxfordshire and east Gloucestershire, UK (RSG, 2010)

Major difficulties faced major	Major lessons learned	Reasons for success/failure:
• High predation rates in pairs released in spring. • The released grey partridges from release sites after covey disintegrare ation unable to monitor after December-January. • Coveys scattering exceptionally early in autumn, making monitoring difficult.	• Spring releases ineffective due to high mortality and low breeding rates. • Release is in autumn feasible but less efficient in increasing grey partridge populations locally on particular release sites because of the scattering of newly-formed pairs. • Game covers key habitats for ato utumn coveys help their initial settlement onto release sites.	• Released birds initially settled well onto the release sites but suffered from very high mortality rates (spring pairs) or dispersed in great numbers from the release sites (pairs formed when the autumn coveys broke up). • Released birds found breeding, but very small sample that could be considered for a reliable conclusion.

2.6.   Mammals – Re-introduction of Arabian Oryx into the Negev Desert, Israel (RSG 2008)

Major difficulties faced	Major lessons learned reasons	Reasons for success/failure
• Low reproduction in two of the three areas. • Military parachutes killing Oryx by entangling them.	Despite of being bulk feeders, certain important elements in the diet must have played a vital role in causing the historic range limitation of the species.	Good performance in only one of the three released populations.

3.      Difficulties, lessons, and reasons for success/failure in reintroducing plants

3.1.      Plants – Conservation introduction of Bakersfield cactus in the southern San Joaquin Valley, California, USA (RSG 2013)

Major difficulties faced	Major lessons learned reasons	Reasons for success/failure
• Agency restrictions on removthe al from source population. • Disartof iculation many padded plants on transport/planting. • Survival of transplants in summer. •Colonization of cleared bedding areas by others.	• Small plants preferred pads for transplants as pads have lower survival rates. • Pads should be allowed to develop roots pribeforet planting. • Larger, heavier pads grow faster, bettewith r survival rates. • Controlling competitors important • Watering during essential for the summer	• Being prepared to face the problems before project implementation • Succulents propagation easis ier than others woody plants.

4.      Discussions

Noting beyond what has been listed above, look at the difficulties associated with plants are the ones to do with either being attacked by wild animals or due to edaphic factors couplewithby microclimatic conditions. For example, the “Conservation and re-introduction of the tiger orchid and other native orchids of Singapore” case study (RSG, 2008) reveals the major problems to be the removal of seedlings by the animals enhanced by the micro-climatic conditions created due to the removal of the surrounding trees or branches.

Further, Madagascar’s effort to augment their threatened Aeranthes orchid population (RSG 2010) saw a very difficult situation in fixing the timing for reintroductions because the choice of sites for reintroduction became very difficult since the collaborators were located very faded which was the lack of facilities for aseptic micro-propagation at the Malagasy University, an institution tasked to conduct simultaneous studies.

In reintroducing animals, the notable project is the reintroduction of Chiricahua leopard frogs (RSG, 2011the )the in southwestern USA. It was rated highly successful because of every promising factor such as large number of released frogs in the watershed, adequate post-release monitoring, and successful reproduction and dispersal after releases. Difficulties faced the included presence and impact of non-native predators and pathogens which, could not however, destroy the population. Therefore, success was obvious.

In yet another case, a highly successful the project on Reintroduction of greater one-horned rhino (RSG, 2013) in India’s Manas National Park, needs special mention. Despite of several problems like drug procrument from abroad, unpredictable weather conditions, keeping the monitor, ng team motivated and shortage of dedicated man power, the group coordinated well to successfully establish a population.

5.      Conclusion

The success of any reintroduction project depends on several factors. If it is not the species, it is thproblemsthat gives problems to the reintroduction teams. Otherwise, it is the shortage of resources (human, infrastructure, etcetera). Whatever, the problems, it is encouex-situto see that ex situ management tool is still working well for keeping the species perpetually.

6.      References

Kleiman, D. G. (ed.) (1987). Wild Mammals In Captivity, Principles, and Techniques. University of Chicago Press. US.

Ralls, K. and Meadows, R. (2001). Captive Breeding and Reintroduction. Encyclopedia of Biodiversity, Volume 1. Academic Press.

Soorae, P. S. (ed.) (2013) Global Re-introduction Perspectives: 2013, Further case studies from around the globe, Gland, Switzerland: IUCN/SSC Re-introduction Specialist Group and Abu Dhabi, UAE: Environment.

Soorae, P. S. (ed.) (2011) Global Re-introduction Perspectives: 2013, Further case studies from around the globe, Gland, Switzerland: IUCN/SSC Re-introduction Specialist Group and Abu Dhabi, UAE: Environment.

Soorae, P. S. (ed.) (2010) Global Re-introduction Perspectives: 2013, Further case studies from around the globe, Gland, Switzerland: IUCN/SSC Re-introduction Specialist Group and Abu Dhabi, UAE: Environment.
Soorae, P. S. (ed.) (2008). Global Re-introduction Perspectives: 2013, Further case studies from around the globe, Gland, Switzerland: IUCN/SSC Re-introduction Specialist Group and Abu Dhabi, UAE: Environment.

MAINSTREAMING SUSTAINABILITY INTO THE DEVELOPMENT GOALS – A brief analysis based on focus area 17’s two key issues viz. promoting sustainable forest management and slowing, halting and reversing deforestation and conversion of forests to crop lands.

1. Introduction
The 65th Session of the United Nations General Assembly that happened in New York, USA on 17th September 2010, provided means to implement the long-term sustainability goals that were decided at the Rio+20 U N Conference on Sustainable Development held at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil from 20–22 June 2012. The post-2015 development agenda was then initiated as a continuation of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) which also included the agreed Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). As such, U N’s General Assembly during the 68th session decided to come out with a single framework for both MDGs and the SDGs by end of 2015. The fear however is, that the sustainable goals might weaken the poverty reduction agenda once they are integrated. Nevertheless, the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA, 2005) synthesis report of the Inland Press, Washington D.C., considers integration as an important step since biodiversity and ecosystem services are vital for human existence. Recognizing that unsustainable use of natural resources would result in biodiversity loss, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) based its strategic plans on sustainable use (Lucas et al., 2014). Thus, the plans pronounce a 2050 vision for sustainable use of biodiversity and ecosystems with five strategic goals and 20 (Aichi) targets emphasizing the integration of the concept of equity while using biodiversity and ecosystem services for human well beings with even the nations requiring the mainstreaming of biodiversity into their development agenda. The MDGs highlight fundamental necessities to lessen poverty and recognizes the role of biodiversity for development in MDG 7 which comprises the CBD 2010 biodiversity target of significantly reducing biodiversity loss.

With this background, we understand how important sustainability for a sustainable world is. As such, mainstreaming sustainability including biodiversity and ecosystems into the development goals must be considered crucial. This paper presents a short analysis of why the chosen (below) issues should be given priority.

2. Focus area 17. Ecosystems and biodiversity
People depend on nature in many different ways. Of the many key issues that are considered for sustainable living earth under focus area 17, the two most important ones that are very important for a sustainable world are explained below.

2.1. Promoting sustainable forest management
Sustainable forest management (SFM) must be promoted for a sustainable world for forests are the basis of many ecosystems. Sustainable forest management must include continued availability and secure the future while deriving the present goods and services and must embrace all legal, economic, social, administrative, technical, and environmental features of the conservation and utility of forests. SFM would involve several steps of thoughtful anthropogenic interference including activities targeted at conservation and sustaining the forest ecosystem and its functions to favor explicit species for enhanced production of goods and services. The Forest Principles adopted at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED, 1992) specify how the forest should be managed for a sustainable world which must be adhered to. In Bhutan, SFM is promoted through programs such as community forestry, forest management units, protected areas, strict nature reserves, and biological corridors. Each of the programs picks certain areas of the government forest land where there are important species (flora and fauna) and start managing the area with a set of sustainable principles adapted to local conditions.

Therefore, mainstreaming SFM into the development goals of any country providing priority to SFM is crucial as in the case of Bhutan which is already using it.

2.2. Slowing, halting, and reversing deforestation and conversion of forests to croplands
Slowing, halting, and reversing deforestation and conversion of forests to croplands is what is a must today. Because, if deforestation and conversion of forests to croplands continue at the current rate, the earth may not be able to withstand the pressure any further. Over the last many years, anthropogenic actions have resulted in the loss of biodiversity and ecosystems as they are destroyed to fulfilling human desires. For instance, according to Food and Agriculture Organization report (2006), the total forest cover in the ASEAN Countries in 2005 was 203 million hectares which are 45 percent of the region’s total land area. The same report also stresses that ASEAN’s 55 percent forest cover in the 1990s decreased to 45 percent in 2005 with an annual average rate of deforestation in the region from 2000 to 2005 at 2.75 million hectares or 1.35 percent, compared to the world average of 0.2 percent, which the region in particular and the world, in general, cannot afford. Therefore, stopping and reversing such phenomenon through effective efforts of lessening further deforestation and encouraging plantation programs to recover the already lost forests must be initiated at the earliest.
Programs like plantation, afforestation, reforestation, and providing survival alternatives to reduce cropland expansions must be given priority. In Bhutan, best efforts are in place to slow and halt deforestation with even plantation programs to reverse deforestation given importance, the proof of which is the winning of UNEP’s 2004 Champions of the Earth Award (UNEP, 2005).

3. Other support programs
To combat the aforementioned identified two most important issues under Focus Area 17, the concerned organizations of the World have come up with two important concepts called the Payment for Ecosystem Service (PES) and Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD+). Under PES, a user or beneficiary of an ecosystem service makes payments to individuals or communities whose management choices and practices stimulate the provision of ecosystem services while REDD and REDD+ have the goal of significantly reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation.

A scheme aimed at sustainable biodiversity conservation, PES is a flexible, incentive-based mechanism that can deliver greater application of policies and incentives to promote the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and ecosystem services, as well as, more efficient use of available finance in existing biodiversity programs. However, Muradian et al. (2013) question the suitability of PES and warn about “overreliance on payments” as a conservation tool which has been termed as an assessment from a PES-skeptical angle by Tacconi (2012). PES of late however is under the scanner of Roldan Muradian and his coauthors (Farley and Costanza 2010; Muradian et al. 2010) and also at various related points by Brockington et al. (2011).

A very simple example of such a scheme in Bhutan is the payment of a certain portion of the water tax of the residents of Mongar (a small town in eastern Bhutan) municipality to the members of the Community Forest Management Group, the residents of a village called Yagpogang where the source of water for the municipality is located. Paid annually, the service givers ensure the water flow continuity by preserving the source and not letting their livestock into the identified forest.

Another program aimed at curbing sustainability is REDD+ which encourages developing countries to reduce their forest and land-based emissions significantly. Through its performance-based incentive mechanism (under UNFCCC), countries that produce fewer emissions are provided funds for their sustainable development.
Since the fund is the most important component of any developmental agenda, these two schemes, in fact, are expected to help achieve the goal of a sustainable globe.

4. Crucial factors for embedding sustainability within the development agenda
The two aforementioned key issues under focus area 17 along with encouraged PES, REDD, and REDD+ programs must be given utmost priority if the forthcoming SDGs’ intention of embedding sustainability within the development agenda to address environmental, social, and economic sustainability for human welfare is to be achieved. However, for sustainability to be mainstreamed, factors such as globalization (ensuring unity amongst the people around the world to consider sustainability as a driving force for human welfare), equity (sharing the resources equally between the haves and the have-nots), and lessening material welfare by the people must be addressed and this can be done only through a holistic approach of inclusive social and economic development, environmental sustainability, peace and security supported by a great amount of policy coherence at all the levels (global, regional, national and sub-national).

5. Conclusion
This paper talks about how and why the focus area 17’s two key issues namely, promoting sustainable forest management and slowing, halting, and reversing deforestation and conversion of forests to croplands must receive greater importance than other key issues. It emphasizes on how critical the earth would be if these two very important factors of biodiversity conservation and sustainable forestry are not taken care of.
This analysis also identifies a few actions as to how the goal of sustainability could be achieved by mainstreaming it in the development goals and provides means of implementation through the schemes such as PES, REDD, etc., and looks at the factors that will be crucial in ensuring the central aim of embedding sustainability within the development agenda.

In rural Bhutan, natural resources such as Paris polyphylla are considered a good source of income for people's development.

6. References
Brockington, D. (2011) ‘Ecosystem services and fictitious commodities’. Environ. Conserv. (4): 367-369.
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). COP 10 Decision X/2: Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity Nagoya, Japan, 2010. Available at: http://www.cbd.int/ (Accessed 1 March 2014).
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). COP 11 Decision XI/22: Biodiversity for Poverty Eradication and Development, Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity: Hyderabad, India, 2012. Available at: https://www.cbd.int/ (Accessed 8 February 2014).
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). COP 6 Decision VI/26: Strategic Plan for the Convention on Biological Diversity. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity: The Hague, The Netherlands, 2002.
Farley, J. and Costanza, R. (2010) ‘Payments for ecosystem services: from local to global’. Ecol. Econ., 69 (11): 2060-2068.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2006) ‘Global forest resources assessment 2005’. Rome, FAO.
Lucas, P. L., Kok, M. T. J., Nilson, M. and Alkemade, R. (2014) ‘Integrating Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services in the Post-2015 Development Agenda: Goal Structure, Target Areas and Means of Implementation’. Sustainability, 6: 193-216
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis; Island Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2005.
Muradian, R., Arsenal, M., Pellegrini, L., et al. (2013) ‘Payments for ecosystem services and the fatal attraction of win-win solutions’. Conserv. Lett., 6 (4): 274-279.
Muradian, R., Corbera, E., Pascual, U., Kosoy, N., and May, P.H. (2010) ‘Reconciling theory and practice: an alternative conceptual framework for understanding payments for environmental services’. Ecol. Econ., 69 (6): 1202-1208.
Realizing the Future We Want for All, Report to the Secretary-General–UN System task team on the post-2015 UN Development Agenda (nd). Available at: http://www.un.org/ (Accessed 3 March 2014)
Tacconi, L. (2012) ‘Redefining payments for environmental services’. Ecol. Econ., 73: 29-36.
Towards sustainable forest (2011). Available at: http://www.fao.org/ (Accessed 8 March 2014).
United Nations Environment Programme (2013) ‘Embedding the Environment in Sustainable Development Goals’ UNEP: Nairobi, Kenya.
United Nations Environment Programme (2005) First-Ever UNEP ‘Champions of the Earth’ Presented to Seven Environmental Leaders. Available at: http://www.unep.org/ (Accessed 15 March 2014).
United Nations. Keeping the Promise: United to Achieve the Millennium Development Goals, A/65/L.1. Presented at the Sixty-fifth Session of the United Nations General Assembly, New York, NY, USA, 17 September 2010.
United Nations. The Future We Want, A/RES/66/288. In Proceedings of the Rio+20 United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 20–22 June 2012.
United Nations. Outcome Document of the Special Event to Follow Up Efforts Made Towards Achieving the Millennium Development Goals, A/68/L.4. In Proceedings of the Sixty-Eight Session of the United Nations General Assembly, New York, NY, USA, 1 October 2013.
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (1992) The earth summit. Available at: http://www.un.org/ (Assessed 2 March 2014).

HOW DOES LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY AFFECT HUMANITY? WHO IS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE CONSEQUENCES

1. INTRODUCTION
Biodiversity means the colossal variety of animals and plants on the earth including the areas where they are found. Homo sapiens are also animals. Therefore, the loss of biodiversity cannot be treated separately. Correctly so, the Convention on Biological Diversity's 'Global Biodiversity Outlook 3' report through their website available at http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/biodiversity/ (2004), states that” We can no longer see the continued loss of biodiversity as an issue separate from the core concerns of society: to tackle poverty, to improve the health, prosperity, and security of present and future generations, and to deal with climate change. Each of those objectives is undermined by current trends in the state of our ecosystems, and each will be greatly strengthened if we finally give biodiversity the priority it deserves”. As such, the human dimension is the single most important factor that contributes to the loss of biodiversity. The ever-increasing population is responsible for the increasing consumption of natural resources. Buying more than required, consuming more energy at home, and driving highly sophisticated vehicles are some of the things we do to increase the speed of species loss.

2. CAUSES OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS

As an individual, I buy the United Nations’ Third Global Biodiversity Outlook (2010) which attributes the loss of biodiversity to the five principal pressures namely, (1) habitat loss and degradation; (2) climate change; (3) excessive nutrient load and other forms of pollution; (4) over-exploitation and unsustainable use and (5) invasive alien species which are all coincident to human population growth. The report also explains how the loss of diversity is increasing throughout the globe (Figure 1).

Figure 1. The proportion of all assessed species in different threat categories of extinction risk on the IUCN Red List is based on 47,677 species. Source: IUCN, pie chart compiled by Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (2010) Global Biodiversity Outlook 3, May 2010.

An outline of how the principal pressures contribute to biodiversity loss is as follows:

2.1. Habitat loss and degradation
There is no disagreement that habitat loss and habitat degradation are the most important threat to biodiversity. The growth of the human population impinges on the habitat of other living beings on the surface of the earth and it is perhaps the main cause of the loss of biodiversity. The population has exacerbated every other factor and has given way to a perpetual hunt for more arable territory for food production and farm animals grazing, and for fuel wood, construction, and energy. Save havens for biodiversity that were never disturbed in the past are now being transformed to suit the human needs for agriculture and other farming activities. Forested lands are stripped of woods and mines and quarries are established to overcome the energy needs of the ever-increasing human population that include me. Homo sapiens, by nature, are selfish, greedy, and uncompromising and tend to inhabit areas of high biodiversity that have relatively rich soils and other facilities suitable for human activities that threaten the very survival of biodiversity. Most often, the areas occupied by humans are known to have numerous endemic species as demonstrated by Balmford, et al., (2001) in a given tropical area.

The information available from their website http://www.rainforestconservation.org/ (2004), asserts that 1700, the estimated human population was 600,000 million in 1700, and in 1800, it was estimated at one billion. But now the population exceeds six billion, and by 2100, the minimum expected population is 12 billion. It remains to be answered whether the earth can resist such a number. Will the birds be able to migrate, will the larger organisms have space to survive, and will the ecosystem survive like its current form or are they doomed to disappear?

However, the case of Bhutan is different because our population is just over 600000 people and we hardly exert pressure on the wild animal habitats. About 81 percent of the country is under forest cover out of which 51 percent is under the protected area systems which are guided by stringent rules. Therefore, my contribution to the loss of biodiversity using the most important factor “habitat loss and degradation” is minimum considering my country’s constant effort to maintain the status quo of the ecosystem.

2.2. Climate change

Climate change is a change in global climate patterns apparent from the mid to late 20th century onwards, attributed largely to the increased levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide produced by the use of fossil fuels. Recent studies have pointed out that climate changes have effects on biodiversity. Root, et al. (2003) gathered data on how the plants and animals responded to climate changes and they found that as many as 80 percent of their study sample had undergone temperature-related changes in physiology. Many amphibians and reptile species are on the decline. Bufo periglenes, the Golden Toad of Costa Rica is extinct and scientists believe that it so happened due to the decline in fog regularity in its cloud forest habitat. Parmesan and Yohe (2003), demonstrated that at least 279 species in their sample had a biological effect due to climate change.

It is needless to mention here that the migratory patterns of some birds around the world are shifting and the populations of the species are declining. The population of Balck-necked Cranes, Grus nigricollis, is in decline in their wintering habitats in Bhutan and they are seen in new areas where they never use to visit in the past.

The other effect of climate change is an increase in infectious diseases. It is so because the contributing agents are affected by rainfall, humidity, and shift in temperature. For example, Phytophthora cinnamon, a fungus is known to have eaten up many Eucalyptus forests in Australia. Further, pathogens are expected to expand their geographical range with the moderation of climate which can encourage pathogens to find new hosts that cannot resist their presence. Harvell, et al., (2002), attributes several amphibian declines to the infections caused by chytrid fungi, that’s known to increase at cooler temperatures.

The effect of climate change on Bhutan is not so much different. Reports on reduced glaciers in the Bhutan Himalayas, availability of mosquitoes in those areas where mosquitoes were not found in the past and increased incidences of floods and erosion (compared to the past), and changes in rainfall patterns are available in media, journals, and the official documents which serve as the examples of effect due to climate change. However, as far as the contribution to climate change is concerned, Bhutan does not do much to its climate because of obvious reasons such as low population density, strict conservation rules, and strong nature-based culture. One can conclude climate change is the result of the developing actions of the already developed countries and the developing countries which emit lots of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and global warming associated gas such as nitrogen, methane, etcetera.

2.3. Excessive nutrient load and other forms of pollution

It is proven that biological systems do not respond very fast to changes in the surrounding environment. Human activities influence the natural surroundings producing negative, direct, or indirect, effects that modify the flow of energy, the chemical and physical constitution of the environment, and the abundance of the species. As such, many species that suffer from pollution-related threats slowly disappear. Freshwater ecosystems are dying due to the excessive addition of pollutants by the human population. Scientists put that close to 12 percent of animal species live in the freshwater ecosystem while most others depend on them to some extent which is why the pollution of the freshwater ecosystem is important. Developing countries are known to dump about 90 percent of their wastewater without treating it to the direct waterways adding lots of nutrients into the water system that can potentially threaten the survival of the species. In terrestrial ecosystems, plant compositions are changed due to added nutrients of humans replacing the natural vegetation. For example, grasses and sedges gain at the expense of dwarf shrubs, mosses, and lichens.

Species changes in temperate ecosystems are known to be caused by nitrogen deposition and this may be a more serious threat than the loss in high-latitude boreal forests, Mediterranean systems, some tropical savannas, and montane forests.

2.4. Over-exploitation and unsustainable use
The increase in human population has resulted in growth in agriculture and that has led to massive exploitation and conversion of wild lands to farmlands, diversions of water from permanent lakes, rivers, and underground aquifers simultaneously polluting water and land resources with pesticides, fertilizers, and animal wastes. The end product of such exploitation has been the destruction, disturbance, or disabling of terrestrial ecosystems and pollution.

As such, over-exploitation and destructive harvesting methods for shortcut gains threaten the world's biodiversity and ecosystems. Notably, significant destruction is found in fisheries management which is now improving, and bush meat hunting which is supposed to be happening at unsustainable levels. However, an ecosystem with considerable pressure is thought to be a marine ecosystem that has a drastic fall in the fish catch despite more efforts.

2.5. Invasive alien species
Global Biodiversity Outlook 3 (2010) states that “Invasive alien species continue to be a major threat to all types of ecosystems and species. There are no signs of a significant reduction of this pressure on biodiversity, and some indications that it is increasing. Intervention to control alien invasive species has been successful in particular cases, but it is outweighed by the threat to biodiversity from new invasions.” The details of the report show the further state that “In a sample of 57 countries, more than 542 alien species, including vascular plants, marine and freshwater fish, mammals, birds, and amphibians, with a demonstrated impact on biodiversity have been found, with an average of over 50 such species per country (and a range from nine to over 220). This is most certainly an underestimate, as it excludes many alien species whose impact has not yet been examined, and includes countries known to lack data on alien species.”

3. AFFECT OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS ON HUMANITY

Biodiversity is the web of life that must be as far as possible be kept undisturbed. It is the resource upon which families, communities, nations, and future generations would depend. It is the link between all organisms on earth, binding each into an interdependent ecosystem, in which all species have their role. It is Earth’s natural assets in the form of plants, animals, land, water, and the atmosphere including humans. Together we all form part of the planet’s ecosystems, which means if there is a biodiversity crisis, our health and livelihoods are at risk too. Therefore, biodiversity is important for humanity in all forms.

The function of biodiversity in the form of ecosystem services has been classified as life-supporting (Nutrient Cycling, Primary Production, and Soil Formation), provisioning (Food, Freshwater, Wood Fiber, and Fuel), Regulating (Climate Regulation, Flood Regulation, Disease Regulation, and Water Purification) and Cultural (Aesthetic, Spiritual, Educational and Recreational). Looking at its function, biodiversity can be considered the basis of human existence, our life support system. Ecosystems regulate climatic processes, break down wastes and recycle nutrients, filter and purify water, buffer against flooding, maintain soil fertility, purify the air, and provide natural resources such as wood, textiles, and of course food. All agriculture depends fundamentally on biodiversity, as do marine and freshwater food resources. With all this explanation, in brief, the importance of biodiversity to an individual human or the whole race is unquestionable.

4. HOW TO COMBAT BIODIVERSITY LOSS
There are many things that you can do to help curb biodiversity loss. The information available at their website http://www.rainforestconservation.org/ (2004), proposes the following activities to curb biodiversity loss:
i. finding alternatives to land-use change and habitat destruction
ii. identification of “biodiversity hot spots,”
iii. habitat and ecosystem restoration
iv. careful planning of land-use changes and consideration of the consequences of biodiversity change during this planning
v. setting aside various kinds of habitats as conservation reserves, parks, and wildlife refuges
vi. utilization of managed forests
vii. approaching conservation comprehensively
viii. cooperation of the development-assistance community
ix. utilization of community-based projects
x. integrated conservation and development projects (ICDP)
xi. making the public, government policymakers, and land managers aware of the global and local consequences of biodiversity changes, both social and environmental
xii. collaboration of scientists with governments to determine policies that will reduce biodiversity loss and environmental deterioration
xiii. train, fund, and give authority to conservation professionals
xiv. formation of an international body which would assess alterations in biodiversity and their consequences
xv. establishment of international agreements
xvi. allocation of adequate funds for scientific research on biodiversity, and for the distribution and analysis of the data obtained

5. CONCLUSION
All forms of life on earth are interconnected by a web called biodiversity which is defined as a variety of plants and animals including the places where they are found. The actions of the human race are very important for the conservation of biodiversity as much the importance of biodiversity to the human race. Therefore, conserving biodiversity is very important.

The contributions of humans to biodiversity loss are enormous because every loss of species is directly or indirectly associated with human actions. It is we humans who cause habitat loss and degradation due to the ever-increasing population; it is we who induce climate change by emitting greenhouse gases through the release of pollutants. We are responsible for loading the river systems and the land with excessive nutrients and other forms of pollution and also we introduce invasive alien species to replace the natural species. Therefore, the contribution of human beings to the loss of biodiversity is enormous. The loss of biodiversity due to human action is un-debatable but without biodiversity, the human race may not survive. Hence, it is important to conserve biodiversity for humanity as a whole.

6. REFERENCES
Balmford, A. Moore, J.L. Brooks, T. Burgess, N. Hansen, L.A. Williams, P. et al. (2001) ‘Conservation conflicts across Africa’, Science (291): 2616–2619.

Root, T.L. Price, J.T. Hall, K.R. Schneider, S. H. Rosenzweig, C. and Pounds, J.A. (2003) ‘Fingerprints of global warming on wild animals and plants Nature (421): 57-60.
Parmesan C. and Yohe G. (2003). A globally coherent fingerprint of climate change impacts across natural systems. Nature (421): 37–42.
Harvell, C.D. Mitchell, C.E. Ward, J.R. Altizer, S. Dobson, A.P. Ostfeld, R.S. and Samuel, M.D. (2002) ‘Climate warming and disease risks for terrestrial and marine biota’ Science (296, 2):158–2,162.
Anup, S. Global Issues (2001). Social, Political, Economic, and Environmental Issues That Affect Us All. Available at: http://www.globalissues.org/article/171/loss-of-biodiversity-and-extinctions/ Assessed on 29th November 2013).
Biodiversity: the magic of our planet (2004). Available at: http://wwf.panda.org/aboutourearth/biodiversity/ (Assessed on 29th November, 2013)
Eco-Questions (2013). Available at: http://www.eco-question.com/what-are-the-main-causes-of-biodiversity-loss/ (Assessed on 28th November 2013).
Rainforest conservation organization (2012). Available at: http://www.rainforestconservation.org/rainforest-primer/2-biodiversity/g-recent-losses-in-biodiversity/5-causes-of-recent-declines-in-biodiversity/ (Assessed on 29th November, 2013)

THE WINDOW VIEW - AN ENCHANTING STORY

The old guys on the window do not suit the story though! Health Officer with the author

I guess sometimes certain things touch our hearts, either softly or with passion. One day I was peeping through my office window to steal a glance at the Yadi suburb when a certain scene caught me by my heart. An enchanting view I should say. Had Shakespeare been in my shoe, he could have scoured all the corners of the English dictionary to describe that scene in ways that would have instantly touched the hearts of humanity and made his eloquence a masterpiece. If the heart of a layman of my caliber could melt, then Shakespeare’s heart would certainly melt as he was a romantic poet, a playwright, a pre-eminent dramatist, and the greatest English writer of all time. The view that I am alluding to is the view of a simple rural damsel. The look I had when I saw this damsel could be compared to that of Romeo’s lovelorn look for Juliet in Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet. The splendid hair of the damsel swaying in the mild breeze and the beautifully curved body charmed me to no end. When she moved around gracefully, it mesmerized me even more so. So, I stood at the window gazing at this masterpiece of god.

The beauty of the damsel evoked immeasurable passion in me. I wished that she said to me, “Hey, take it easy I am with you.” Had Juliet been there with me stealthily robbing the beauty of that simple damsel (whom I choose not to name), she would have envied the pose of that ravishingly simple damsel. Oh! What a view! Just then a quivering shock ran through my spine reminding me not to steal the show from a hidden closet. I felt guilty to do that but somehow could not help looking at this most beautiful creature who did not have even a tinge of the notion that she was the focal point of a silent admirer.

H. G. Wells, an essayist, and a poet had also been a victim like me. In his, Through a Window, he thanks the god ‘many times a day’ for the window offers him many a beautiful views. The poet like me had been completely melted by the similar mesmerizing view he had through so many windows. Like him, I have my own version of, The Window View that I wish to share with the readers. I was spellbound, hypnotized, and flattered by the beautiful scenery in the form of a lovely, and unquestionably magnificent damsel that looked like a new enchanting edifice in the background. So, I am short of words to express the scene. Awesome, amazing, and alluring things more than often fall short of words to explain. They numb the writers’ brains. Wonderstruck, I am wordless. I am sure even the world’s best artists despite their best efforts would fail to generate such a scene, a touching one. Not so beautiful, yet very lovely and touchy; not so tall yet, much taller; not so simple yet, much beguiling; not so dashing yet, much ravishing. That cream-faced Juliet I saw from the window touched the core of my heart momentarily making me forget the rest of the world and pushing me into the world of phantasmal. Even that newly built door and facade in the background added to her looks. She appeared so beautiful and thrilling, that I momentarily lost my senses. Every glimpse of her espied me and I found them ticklish, enthralling, and stylishly piercing into the temple of my heart.

That unknown damsel evoking so much uncontrollable emotion in me is quite a surprise. But my sixth sense told me to be reasonable. It reminded me of my two beautiful daughters and their mother. Eventually, that brought me back to my senses, but that was again helplessly very ephemeral. Moments later I would again be preoccupied with the scene’s continuous replay in my mind like that of the repeated television commercials we are familiar with.

With enormous mental strength, I pulled all my senses together to forget that view, but to no avail. The reappearance of that beautiful scene from the window time and again encouraged me to launch an attack on the beguilingly beautiful damsel with an ink gun. For that, I needed such a machine that could shoot her heart with a single shot, as failing to do so would mean facing societal blames and shame. Getting ready to shoot her down took me some time thus creating room for other Romeos to enjoy and plan their shots at this ravishingly beautiful damsel. I thought, with a good job and beautiful physique, her prospect of receiving proposals for courtship and marriage was good. I was told that at least two competitors were trying to woo her. I was then the third candidate. Being married, I knew that I would be at the losing end of the battle, but decided not to give up.

Finally, I released a bullet with lots of passion-laden powder in it. I thought I hit her temple as she collapsed and started to converse with me. I felt younger when she walked and talked to me. The fact that she chose me over other bachelors initially threw me off my feet.

Further, not being so handsome and with a spouse and kids in tow, I wondered what in me did she see to come my way. I guessed perhaps she liked my traveling job and my blue car. But my enemies had something in store for me. I learned that they had exposed my identity by informing the girl that I had a wife and children. I actually thought she was aware of that fact. Oh, that spoiled everything. However, the most painful part of the story was that she accepted me on the assumption that I was a bachelor. She insisted that I should not ask her for marriage as I had children at home. That in effect meant the end of our courtship. She hated me for betraying her. I explained our promiscuous society's rules and tried to win her confidence to stay with me.

Being educated she had the sense of deciding not to meet me again. Deep inside I thanked her for rejecting me as my inner voice later told me that loving her would mean leaving my kids behind. And if that happened I don’t know where I could have been by now. Thus we parted ways. Now she has a husband and a child, but we do greet each other whenever we cross paths. In the end, I would say that the views from the windows could change your destiny.

BUT I KEPT HER A NAME CCG (Cutie Cutie Girl) that goes with me all along.

Disclaimer

This is my personal thought and anything written here is not intended to harm or promote people or things mentioned here. No one is authorized to use the content of this blog for either personal or private purposes. People mentioned here are fictitious characters and any resemblance to anyone with some characters or more is purely coincidence.

STORY OF A COMMON MAN

Not-so-young Jigme Tshelthrim Wangyal was then called Guyoum Tsalo.

My name is Jigme and I come from Pema Gatshel. While I receive a state salary to support myself, I consider myself an independent researcher. I am grateful to my country for providing me with this opportunity, even though I sometimes feel I am not living up to the expectations of my job description. As a result, I often take on additional tasks related to nature research. While I may not be an expert in many areas, I am knowledgeable about important and necessary topics. If anyone is interested in learning more about me, they can hire me for research related to nature. 

I am passionate about protecting the natural world, especially forests and the animals that call them home. However, I must admit that my knowledge of the subject matter is limited. Despite my lack of expertise, I have been employed as a Forest Ranger. During this time, I was responsible for marking trees for extraction, but I did not know the names or significance of the trees I was marking. This lack of knowledge made me feel disheartened and eventually led me to resign from the position. I worried about the potential damage I was causing by marking trees without a full understanding of their importance. Although leaving the job may have relieved my guilt, I am uncertain if it was the best decision.

According to my terms of reference, I was responsible for apprehending individuals who were illegally cutting down trees without proper marking, fishing without a valid permit, poaching wild animals, and collecting sand and boulders without permission. However, even though these were my assigned duties, I felt conflicted because many of the people I encountered were struggling to make a living and may not have been fully aware of Bhutan's forest laws.

I apprehended illegal fishermen who lacked proper housing, caught wild animal poachers who barely had enough rice to survive (not even a proper home, just a shack), and held stone and sand collectors accountable for stealing from contractors who paid fines through representatives instead of facing consequences themselves. These experiences made me realize that although I was being paid for these tasks, they may not have been as crucial as I initially thought.

Over time, I worked hard to improve my qualifications and education, and I am grateful to my King and Country for the opportunities to advance my career through various exams and assessments. However, I cannot help but feel frustrated when I see others who have not put in the same effort and yet enjoy similar or even better privileges than those of us who have worked hard to enter and succeed in the civil service. It seems unfair that luck plays such a significant role in determining one's career path, and it is a source of disappointment for me to realize that I may not be as fortunate as others. Writing this "about me" section has only reminded me of this unfortunate reality.

In an attempt to distance myself from exploiting the poor and marginalized individuals who rely on natural resources for their survival, I transitioned to a different aspect of forestry work known as extension. However, this department has since been closed due to what I believe to be policy negligence or mismanagement by a colleague who lacked knowledge about forestry. I must admit that I was not suited for the extension work, and it was not my intention to work there. Nevertheless, some of my junior colleagues, who had lower levels of education and experience than I did, began to assert their authority as officers (even though they were only temporary stand-ins) and urged me to compete with them or overthrow them. This created an uncomfortable situation for me, as I am not someone who can flatter my bosses with empty words and gestures to advance my career. I do not wish to disparage our work culture, but I must acknowledge that the capability of juniors to please their superiors to secure desirable positions may play a role in this dynamic.

I must admit that I grew to appreciate the extension job as I worked in it and found that I made a greater contribution as an extension agent, rather than as someone who pursued those who relied on forests, wildlife, and rivers for their survival. Unfortunately, things changed for me when one individual began to question our ability to perform well in our role. This person doubted our qualifications and undermined our capacity, which I find difficult to understand. When considering my own qualifications, which include Pre-University Bio-Science from Sherubtse College (1996), a Professional High Standard Diploma in forestry from Northeast Forest Rangers' College, Assam, India (1998), a PG Diploma (Honours) in wildlife management from Wildlife Institute of India (2007), a B Sc in Forestry from College of Natural Resources, Royal University of Bhutan (2012), and an M Sc in Biodiversity, Wildlife, and Ecosystem Health from the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom (2016), I do not believe that anyone should question our capacity or our potential to contribute to the conservation of nature and the development of our nation.

I recall receiving an out-of-turn promotion for exceeding the expectations outlined in my job description. However, while I am grateful for the recognition, I cannot deny my disappointment at no longer having that role in where I excelled. Now I must adjust to working outside of my comfort zone, which has left me feeling as though my abilities and potential have been irreparably underestimated (at least in my own perception, if not in the eyes of those who manage me). As a result, I plan to continue pursuing independent research until I feel my reputation is rightfully acknowledged and respected.

Losing the job where I thrived has taught me a valuable lesson: life moves forward regardless of our circumstances. There is no going back, no reclaiming the time we've spent, and no chance to relive the same day twice. At times, our capacity may not matter, and our qualifications and skills may go underutilized. Yet, ultimately, it is our life that we are living, and that is what truly counts.

A final important aspect of me is that I am passionate about amphibians and reptiles in Bhutan. If you want to learn more about these species, you can contact me at jigmewangyal@gmail.com, and I am happy to provide my identification services for free. Alternatively, you can visit the Facebook group "Bhutan Herps" where we have international herpetologists who can assist you with information anytime, anywhere.

If you're interested in learning more about me and my skills, feel free to contact me 😂😂😂. I have a diverse range of abilities and am available for hire. This is the story of an ordinary person, just like anyone else.

Disclaimer

This is a personal statement and the content of this blog is not meant to harm or promote anyone or anything mentioned here. The use of the content of this blog, for either public or private purposes, by anyone is not authorized. Any resemblance to any person or character mentioned in this blog is purely coincidental as all characters mentioned are fictitious.

No more Guyoum Tsalo but Jigme Tshelthrim Wangyal