IMPACT OF DAM ON WILDLIFE - THE CASE OF TODLADOH IN PENCH TIGER RESERVE

NB
This was an assignment done in 2007 at the Wildlife Institute of India. I missed a medal by one mark but I realized that "A miss is as good as mile".

ABSTRACT

Acclaimed as the cataclysmic event, damming of river has been known to bring about change in local ecosystem. Damming results in fragmentation of wildlife population into genetically isolated sub-populations, affect prey population, less diversity downstream due to lowered nutrient availability and limited dispersal of aquatic fauna between river systems. This study envisages changes in wildlife habitat brought by the construction of Pench Reservoir over the Pench River at Todladoh. The impact assessment of submergence on wildlife values was done by comparing the past scenario through literature survey and existing situation by conducting field study on floristic composition and use of reservoir by wildlife. The data were collected by laying circular plots at targeted areas. Due to the construction of this reservoir around 72 km² of prime teak forest was lost leading to the loss of prime tiger habitat. However, the reservoir has also contributed significantly by creating new wildlife habitat and by providing water and recharging the aquifers in this semiarid region. The results of the study revealed that the cheetal Cervus axis are using the drawdown areas most. The sambar Cervus unicolor and neelgai Boselaphus tragocamelus are using the fringe forests more than the drawdown areas. The other animals using the drawdown areas are gaur Bos gaurus and wild boar Sus scrofa. Discussion with the park management indicated higher biomass production in these areas resulting in enhanced prey biomass for tiger and other carnivores. At least 24 species of migratory and 36 species of resident water birds belonging to 15 families are using this reservoir. In recent years the drawdown areas are getting infected with weeds such as Parthenium, Cassia tora and Argemone mexicana leading to decreased wildlife values. Human activities such as fishing and movement of people are disturbing wildlife. At the moment the management intervention is limited to terrestrial wildlife habitat. Improvement of aquatic species habitat for migratory and resident water birds and other species such as mugger Crocodylus palustria and otter Lutra perspicillata is suggested.

1. Introduction

A dam or a  reservoir  is created  when people  need  water  for irrigation  or the rivers are  dammed  to generate  hydroelectric  power or to control flood. Pench River has been dammed to generate power for the public of Madhya Pradesh and Maharastra. By a simple logic, such reservoir severely can affect virtually everything from abiotic to biotic components of a wetland ecosystem. The  reservoir  can over  the period change the soil  structure, temperature  and rainfall  pattern of the  adjoining  areas  creating a new environment and ecosystem. It can affect the land use pattern of animals such as birds, mammals, fishes, reptiles etc.

In the light of above affect that a dam can bring to wildlife, some specific loss and benefit to wildlife are discussed below.

1.1. Habitat Loss or Alteration

In some cases reservoirs are helpful to wildlife. For example, some dam projects produce wetlands, which can provide feeding and breeding areas for many types of waterfowl depending on the reservoir operation. This is an example for the case of Pench Reservoir. Although some wildlife species benefit from the development of reservoirs, most studies have reported habitat loss to be a major concern for wildlife. Reservoir clearing and flooding can result in extensive loss of riparian and valley bottom habitats. Because of their abundant food supplies and sheltered micro-climate, these habitats often support a much higher diversity of wildlife than adjacent upland habitats. Many wildlife species depend on these habitats for breeding or over wintering.

Wildlife can also be adversely affected by more subtle changes in habitat quality. Changes in the flow regime of rivers that are regulated by dams can change the natural succession in downstream vegetation communities and affect the suitability of these habitats for wildlife. (Succession is the gradual process of replacement of vegetation and wildlife communities with time. Once an area is mature it takes an event like fire or flood to start the process over again.) Dam operations can reduce the incidence of flooding of riparian habitat, which is often necessary to maintain early-successional communities that are important for certain wildlife species.

The long-term effects of flow regulation on downstream ecosystems are often complex and may be difficult to predict.

1.2. Effects on Wildlife Movements

Affects can also occur when dams or reservoirs change movements of wildlife between seasonally important habitats. Large reservoirs can permanently alter the traditional movement patterns of migratory species. Some reservoirs facilitate wildlife movements and open new territory but wildlife may experience difficulty crossing reservoirs or reaches of rivers downstream of dams. Operation of some reservoirs, particularly those used for hydroelectric generation, may result in unstable ice conditions or the formation of ice shelves along shorelines, which can restrict wildlife movements and increase the risk of injury or mortality of wildlife. Direct mortality of large ungulate is possible due to drowning, either by falling in the unseen gullies in the ground cover by water or by attempting to cross downstream reaches of rivers during the pinch period when they are forced to travel far and wide in search of food.

1.3. Wildlife Mortality

During facility construction and reservoir flooding, large numbers of birds, mammals, amphibians and reptiles can be lost. Risks are greatest to nestlings and smaller, less mobile species, as larger animals are displaced into adjacent habitats. Fluctuating water levels in reservoirs can also cause the accidental mortality of nesting birds. If the construction of the dam creates easier access, then collisions with vehicles on transportation corridors and increased hunting pressure can also increase the mortality of wildlife.

2. World scenario on Dams

Dams provide drinking water, irrigate the land, produce hydro-electricity and prevent floods and it is understood that over 48,000 large dams are in operation worldwide. Despite of such an alarming number of dams being in operation, WWF report that one billion people do not have access to safe drinking water today and more than double that number lack basic sanitation and two billion people have no access to electricity which is expected to rise. With the ever fast growing population of people it is expected that by 2050 at least 1 in 4 people will be living in a country affected by water shortages. An alarming scenario of seven billion people in 60 countries is expected to face water scarcity and to meet the demand for water, more large dams are proposed as a key solution. But will such idea solve the problem of those whose needs are growing by days at largest? Dams more than often have brought benefits at the cost of environmental and society as they destroy ecosystems and cause people to lose their homes and livelihoods.

World's largest and most important rivers like Yangtze in China, the La Plata in South America, and the Tigris and Euphrates in the Middle East are likely to suffer most from indiscriminate dam buildings, warns a WWF report. WWF report, Rivers at Risk, has recognized top 21 rivers at risk from dams being planned or under construction. The report shows that over 60% of the world's 227 largest rivers have been fragmented by dams, which has led to the destruction of wetlands, a decline in freshwater species - including river dolphins, fish, and birds - and the forced displacement of tens of millions of people. The Yangtze River has been identified as the river at most risks with 46 large dams planned or under construction and includes the Danube and Amazon rivers.

The World Commission on Dams (1998) provides recommendations and guidelines to allow balance between the destruction and benefit which however has been neglected by the governments and are not applying these recommendations to their dam projects as a result of which, the benefits that dams provide - such as hydropower, irrigation, and flood control services - are often overtaken by negative environmental and social impacts.

For instance, inefficient agriculture irrigation system is known to waste to 1,500 trillion litres of water annually which is equivalent to 10 times the annual water consumption of the entire African continent. The downstream communities suffer most from dams, with rivers running dry and fish stocks decimated. Dams disrupt the ecological balance of rivers by depleting them of oxygen and nutrients, and affecting the migration and reproduction of fish and other freshwater species. For example, China - the country with the most number of dams planned or under construction in the world - may lose endangered species such as the Yangtze River Dolphin and many water birds if indiscriminate dam-building continues to destroy their habitats.

 Picture 1: Lesotho’s Mohale dam is one of the world's highest rock fill dams. US$2 trillion has been spent constructing 45,000 such large dams around the globe since 1900.

So, it is not just important that we get it right. It's critical that we get it Dam right!

3. Indian version of the Dam story

In 1947 there were about only 300 large dams in India. But by 2000 the number of dams increased over 4000, more than half of them being built between 1971 and 1989. India is next only to US and China in terms of dam building and ranks third in the world. While about 96% of Indian dams serve the purpose of irrigation some of these dams were built primarily for flood control, water supply, and hydroelectric power generation. Large dam construction has been the main form of investment in irrigation undertaken by the government of India. By 1980 controversy on investing on dam construction started with the Sardar Sarovar Project - centering on the balance between the social, environmental, and economic costs of dams and their benefits, encouraging the question of support to communities and the environment.

Most irrigation dams in India are embankment dams. That is, they consist of a wall built across a river valley to impound water so as to form a reservoir upstream and a system of spillways and gates to bypass the wall so as to maintain normal river flow and convey water to a network of canals feeding irrigated regions downstream. Power is generated but in majority of the cases there has been loss to wildlife in the form of obstriuction of their movement and creation of sub population.

4. The Case of Pench Tiger Reserve – Todladoh Dam

The Pench River was dammed at Todladoh with the main objective of generating hydro power electricity as joint venture between the two states of Maharastra and Madhya Pradesh. The project started in 1973. The dam is located south of Pench Tiger Reserve in Compartment No. 229c in Chindwara district. Before the completion of the dam, the area projected to be submerged had to be cleared thrice due to delay in construction. Every time the trees were felled, coppicing would be there and felling was required repeatedly. The felling work continued till the year 1985, '86 and '87.

5. Objectives of the study on the Todladoh Dam in Pench Tiger Reserve

a. Examine type and extent of vegetation/forest submerged.

b. Assess the status of wildlife and their habitat in the submergence area.

c. Examine the impacts of the reservoir on wildlife values.

d. To suggest remedial measures on the basis of the findings of the above objectives.

6. Scope of the study

Due to time constraints, the scope of this study is limited to;

1. Examination of the past and present scenario through literature survey.
2. Assessment of status of wildlife through field data collection and discussion with the Park Management.
3. Identification of problems on wildlife caused by the reservoir through discussion with  the Park Officials and subsequently, the field visit.
4. Make suggestions for enhancement of wildlife value on the basis of this study and the discussions with the Park Officials, and the faculty members of  the  Institute.

7. Methodology

7.1. Literature review

A thorough review of literature on Pench Tiger Reserve especially pertaining to the Reservoir was made. Alfred and Chandra (2002) have reported the use of the reservoir area by faunal elements such as insects, fishes, reptiles and amphibians. Based on these studies, conservation status and distribution of rare and endangered animals were drawn and illustrative field guides were developed for the museum collection of fauna occurring in Pench Tiger Reserve. Study on wetlands and riparian Areas in Pench Tiger Reserve were conducted with a focus on the diversity and status of fishes, waterfowls and mammals by Alfred and Chandra (2002). Shrivastava (2002) has discussed in detail the floristic composition, vegetation structure, conservation status and the distribution of rare and endangered plant and plant communities in Pench Tiger Reserve. Management plans of Pench Tiger Reserve for the year 1990 and 2005 were also consulted.

7.2. Field Survey

To assess the terrestrial habitat use by various animals and to compare the habitat condition of the draw down areas and the fringe forest a circular plot of 10 m radius were laid at compartment 9 (Teak Forest), compartment 12 (Mixed Forest), compartment 5 (Fringe forest area) and compartment 2 (Drawdown area) at Karmajhiri Range.

To find out the use of fringe habitat all pellet/dung groups for all animals that were found in the plots were counted irrespective of freshness or the dryness. By ocular estimation the percentage of canopy cover was made in two plots of compartments 9 and 12 (fringe area plots). In order to compare the ground cover in the fringe forest and the draw-down area and to assess the habitat use by animals the following data were recorded in all the plots;

a)      % of grass (dry and wet)

b)      %  litter

c)       % barren soil

d)      % weeds

e)      Number of pellets in each plot of individual animal species.

Grass species where noted to find the difference in species composition if any between the fringe forest and the draw-down areas. The number of pellet/dung groups for all animals were counted and compared for the two different habitats to asses the habitat use by animals.

8. Results and discussions

Literature survey revealed the following results;

8.1. Extent of submergence

A considerable area in Pench Tiger Reserve comes under submergence during 4 - 5 months commencing with the monsoon. After water recedes, Compartment No. 1, 2 and 3 comes under drawdown area and gets covered extensively with Parthenium hysterophorus. The Parthenium cover over the years has led to suppression of natural flora and vast hectares of land are deprived of forage on which the herbivores depend. The decaying logs and woods carried by water studded along the banks of the reservoir have made the bank unproductive.

Of the total area submerged which is about 54.57 km², 75% of the submergence area falls within the Park boundaries covering about 17.24 km² in Karmajhiri Range and 37.27 km² in Gumtara Range and remaining 25% (19.93 km²) falls in Jawaharlal NP in Maharastra.  The details of the different water levels of the dam are as follows;

1. Maximum Flood Level - 493.60 meters
2. Minimum Reservoir Level - 464.00 meters
3. Level at heavy rainfall (FTL) - 490.00 meters
4. Reservoir after heavy rainfall - 2 - 3 meters (Data source; Management Plan 1990)
5. Maximum depth of water at FTL - 68.10 meters
6. Expected life span of the dam - 100 yrs
7. The extent of draw down area 11.74 km² (Data source; Management Plan 2005)

Figure 1. Map of study sites depicting the location of sampling plots in different habitat types.

8.1.1. Range and compartment wise area under submergence

The dam has  submerged at  least three  categories  of  land  viz. reserve  forest, protected  forest  and  revenue  land  covering  two  Ranges of  Gumtara and Karmajhiri in the Madhya  Pradesh part  of  the   Tiger  Reserve.  The extents of coverage are detailed below compartment wise.

Table 1. Details of submergence areas in the Karmajhiri Range in Pench Tiger Reserve

Compartment No.	Area in hectare	Area under submergence	Total area
1	115.40	510.10	625.50
2	153.80	143.70	297.50
3	228.70	414.60	643.30
4	346.10	277.40	623.50
5	681.40	53.00	734.40
6	517.40	4.00	521.40
7	547.80	16.20	564.00
9	322.30	42.50	364.80
26	287.90	72.80	360.70
27	283.40	117.40	400.80
29	313.40	72.90	386.30
		1724.60

Table 2. Details of submergence areas in the Gumtara Range in Pench Tiger Reserve

Compartment. No.	Area in hectare	Area under submergence	Total area
172	200.00	10.50	210.50
173	190.60	47.00	237.60
174	155.10	42.50	197.60
175	225.00	22.70	247.70
176	217.10	35.60	252.70
177	249.30	32.40	281.70
194	222.20	6.10	228.30
195	185.00	6.50	191.50
196	318.50	54.60	373.10
197	96.70	105.20	201.90
198	189.40	102.40	291.80
199	87.40	226.60	314.00
200	152.40	35.60	188.00
201	265.50	53.80	319.30
202	218.40	11.70	230.10
203	199.50	4.00	203.50
209	271.40	2.40	273.80
210	253.30	24.70	278.00
211	104.80	170.00	274.80
213	162.00	57.50	219.50
214	209.60	29.20	238.80
215	181.70	45.30	227.00
216	193.00	34.40	227.40
222B		11.30	11.30
223B		114.50	114.50
224		177.50	177.50
225		287.30	287.30
226		285.10	285.10
227		227.00	227.00
228	179.20	53.80	233.00
229	107.70	293.70	401.40
237	226.10	35.60	261.70
238	3.20	226.70	229.90
239	212.20	116.10	328.30
	Total	2989.3

Table 3. Total area of Protected forest under submergence in the Pench Tiger Reserve

P 84	-	270.60	270.60
P 85	17.20	189.10	206.30
Total		459.70

Table 4. Total area of Revenue land under submergence in the Pench Tiger Reserve

Paraspani - Khurd and Umrighat	-	278.10	278.10
Total		278.10

Table 5. Total land categories with their extent at various Ranges and Revenue areas below:

Gumtara Range

Reserve forest	-	2989.30
Protect forest	-	459.70
Revenue level	-	278.10
Total		3727.10

Karmajhiri Range

Reserve forest

-

1724.6

Grand Total of area coming under submergence

Grand total

-

5451.70

Table 6. Split up of area coming under Submergence

	Karmajhiri	Gumtara	Total
Forest Land	1724.60	3449.00	5173.60
Revenue Land	-	278.10	278.10
Total	1724.60	3727.10	5451.70

8.1.2. Total submergence area based on digital data

Based on LISS III digital data twelve different vegetation and land cover categories have been delineated in PTR in which the submergence accounts to about 11.74 km2 of which 1.55% is Land cover category. While  the  extent  submergence   area  has  been  well  documented,  the  total  volume  of  timber  extracted  from  this  area has  not been  maintained  making  it very  difficult  to  guesstimate  the  biomass  content  of the  zone  of submergence  34 years back when  the  felling  operation  started with  the launch  of  Todladoh  Dam  for  generating hydroelectric  power for  the  two  states  of  Maharashtra  and  Madhya  Pradesh  over  the  River Pench.

8.2. Types of forest submerged 

An over view of Vegetation in Pench Tiger Reserve

As per Rodger's and Panwar's classification, Pench Tiger  Reserve is in Bio-geographic zone 6A (Deccan Peninsula) and SFRI, Jabalpur, report of the flora of Pench Tiger Reserve confirms the following categories of forest based on the  revised classification of forest by Champion and Seth (1968):-

5BC1c - South Indian Tropical Moist Deciduous (slightly moist) Teak Forest

5A/C1b (iv) - Southern Tropical Dry Deciduous Teak bearing forests

5A/C3 - Southern Tropical Dry Mixed Deciduous forest

5BC1c - South Indian Tropical Moist Deciduous (slightly moist) Teak Forest

All the teak forests of southern slopes of Satpura range, stretching from southwest Kandlai to Karmajhiri along the Pench River have been classified under this category based on the average rainfall received in Soeni district over the past 95 years which is 1308.16mm. The Pench National Park and Pench Sanctuary area cover  mainly two sub types of forest as described below:-

Sub type 5A/C 1b - Southern Tropical Dry Deciduous Teak Bearing Forest

Sub type 5A/C 3 - Southern Tropical Dry Mixed Deciduous forest

Type 5A/C1b covers about 29% of the Park and 35% of the Sanctuary area, the rest of the area falls under Southern Tropical Mixed Deciduous forests - 5A/C3 type. There is no sharp demarcation line between the above two types in the Pench National Park and Sanctuary area.

5A/C1b (iv) - Southern Tropical Dry Deciduous Teak Bearing Forest

This type of forest is found along the Pench River as well as on the hill slope of the Bodanala and Kalapahad area. Most of this type of forest in Soeni and Chindwara (within the Park boundary) has gone under submergence of the Pench Hydroelectric Project. The density of such crop varies from 0.6 to 0.8 and teak forms about 25% to 50% of the total crop.

i. Over-wood

The associates of Teak (Tectona grandis) such as Dhawra (Anogeissus latifoilia), Lendia (Lagerstroemia parviflora), Saja (Terminalia tomentosa), Salai (Boswellia serrata), Moyan (Lannea coromandelica), Mahua (Madhuca indica), Dhoban (Dalbergia paniculata), Mokha (Schrebera swietenioides), Siras (Albezzia lebbec), Tendu (Diospyrus melanoxylum), Bija (Pterocarpus marsupium), Tinsa (Ougeinia oojeinensis) and Haldu (Adina cordifolia). The trees of Koha (Terminalia arjuna) and Jamun (Syzygium cumini) are found along the large water bodies, riverbanks and small islands in the riverbed.

ii. Underwood

There could have been an under wood of middle density comprising of Anola (Emblica officinalis), Dhaman (Grewia tiliaefolia), Kumbhi (Cassia fistula), Ghont (Zyzyphus xylopyra), Baranga (Kydia calycina), Amaltas (Cassia fistula), Ashta (Bauhinia racemosa), Dainkamali (Gardenia resinifera), etc. Bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus) occurs sparsely restricted to some valleys of Compartment No. 25, 27, 41, 42, 21, 22, 230, 331 and 232.

iii. Shrubs

Shrubby species such as Seharoo (Bauhinia retusa), Bekal (Gymnosporia spinosa), Dhawai (Woodfordia fruticosa), Karonda (Carissa carandas), Jhau (Tamarix ericoides) that occurs in river beds could have been submerged.

iv. Grasses that could have been submerged

Apluda mutica, Digitaria setigena, Heteropogon contortus, Eragrostis tenella, Themedia quadrivalvis, Themedia triandra, Setaria glauca, Sorghum nepalense and Schima nervosum that usually occur in the ground floor along with many other less prominent grass species.

v. Climbers

Chilati (Acacia pinnata), Mahulbel (Bauhinia vahlii), Palabel (Butea superba) that are common along the riverbed and water bodies could have been submerged.

vi. Weeds

Lantana camera and Van Tulsi (Deadalacanthus purpurascens) are present in most of the area especially in the compartment located on the periphery of PA.

5A/C 3 - Southern Tropical Dry Mixed Deciduous forest

Mixed forests are found in small patches. Generally the forests containing less than 25% teak had been recognized as mixed forests. This type of forests covers large tracts of National Park and Sanctuary. It can be recognized as the prominent vegetation type in the National Park and Sanctuary.

The floristic composition of 5A/C3 type of forests in Pench

i. Overwood

Lendia (Lagerstroemia parviflora), Saja (Terminalia tomentosa), Dhaora (Anogeissus latifolia), Salai (Boswellia serrata), Garari (Cleistanthus collinus), Bhirra (Chloroxylon sweitenia) together form 60% of the crop. Dhaora (Anogeissus latifolia) is plentiful on deep loamy soil in better quality forest. Salai (Boswellia serrata) and Bhirra (Chloroxylon sweiitenia) become prominent in poor quality soil. Patches of Garari (Cleistanthus collinus) can be seen near Bodanala area adjoining Ambadi village and as well as compartment 26, 37, 29, 30 and 4 near Chindwara.

ii. Underwood

Khair (Acacia catechu), Aonla (Emblica officinalis), Bhirra (Chloroxylon sweitenia) and Palsah (Butea monosperma) form the major components of the under - forests.

iii. Bamboo

Locally present in some areas but their proportion is very low in mixed forests.

iv. Shrubs

The shrubby layer compose of Siharoo (Baihinia retusa), common in compartment 36; growing gregariously  in open areas are Ber (Zizyphus jujuba), Marorphali (Helicteres isora), Adusa (Adatoda vasica), Mainpal (Randia dumentorum), Kakai (Flacourtia indica), Dhawai (Woodfordia fruticosa) and Karonda (Carissa carandas)

v. Herbs

Herbaceous flora consists of few seasonal herbs growing sparsely. The most common herbs are Jangli Tuar (Moghania semialata), Chirayata (Andrographis paniculata), Van Tulsi (Daedalacanthus purpurascens), Jangli baigan (Solanum spp.), Kali Musli (Curculigo orchioides) and alike.

vi. Grasses

A wide variety of grasses cover most of the ground area. Some of the common species are Heteropogon contortus, Digitaria ciliaris, Apluda mutica, Dicanthium annulatum, Themedia triandra, Themedia quadrivalvis, Euliopsis binata etc. The grass growth is noticed profusely under slightly open crop and in clear patches.

vii. Climbers

The important climber species are Makoi (Zizyphus oenoplia), Palabel (Butea superba), Ramdaton (Smilax zeylanica), Satawar (Asparagus racemosa), Gunj (Abrus precatorius), Gurar  (Milletia auriculata), Kevanch (Mucuna prureins) and Mahulbel (Bauhinia vahlii).

viii. Weeds

Weeds are prevalent in the over grazed area in most of the forest compartments in both Soeni and Chindwara part of the Park. The common weeds are Gokhru (Xanthium strumarium), Gulmehandi (Lantana camara), Chirota (Cassia tora) and Parthenium species. The Parthenium species occurs in open areas near Alikata and Chedia forest areas as well as along the submergence area if the Pench River. Thick Lantan camara can be seen in areas within low density forests near habitation. The following associations of various grass species have been recognized in the Park and Sanctuary area:-

a) Heteropogon contortus - Themedia triandra Community

This community comprise of Rottboellia exltata, Apluda mutica, Seteria glauca. Paspalidium flavidum and Bothrichloa odorata, Digitaria granularis, Sorghum nepalensis as associates. This can be seen in compartment along Allikata - Karmajhiri road, near Mannu talab along Gurshalghat - Baghdeo Road.

b) Themedia quadrivalvis - Apluda mutica - Rottboellia exaltata community

This community has been seen associated with Iseilema laxum, Bothrichloa pertusa, Eragrostis tenella, Rottboellia performata and can be seen in compartments along Kala Pahar - Piorthari - Chhindimata road.

c) Heteropogon contortus - Digitaria granularis community

Associated with Apluda mutica, Aristida adsensionis, Sorghum nepalense and Eragrostis tenella - seen in compartment 42, 41, 10 and 6

d) Heteropogon contortus - Bothriochloa pertusa community

Associted with Eragrostis tenella, Dactyloctenium aegypticum, Chloris barbata, Hackelochloa granularis, Echnochloa colonum, Paspalidium flavidum, Brachiaria ramosa, Eragrostis bifaria, Setaria tomentosa, Oplismenus burmanni, Alloteropsis cimicina and Cynodon dactylon. It can be seen in open forest areas of Turia, Khamrith and Satosha beats.

e) Saccharum spontaneum community

Associated with Coix gigantea, Eragrostis diarrhena, Imperata cylindrica along the river Pench near Raiyakassa, Chhedia, Bodanala and other moist localities.

f) Eragrostis tenella community

In some  areas on shallow soils, pure extensive patches of Eragrostis  tenella are present mostly visible at  compartment 26, 27 and 3 of Alikatta circle.

8.2.1. Impact of submergence on vegetation: What could have been submerged?

To come to the conclusion of  what  could  have  been  submerged is an important question  that has  to  be answered in a closest possible way so as  to  understand the pre-reservoir habitat  for the  animals of Pench Tiger Reserve. To the best of the information available and to the best of  the understanding made possible by field  visits and  as per  the various  survey  records  on  the Pench  vegetation, the forest  type,  5A/C1b (iv) - Southern Tropical Dry Deciduous Teak Bearing Forest (based  on Champion and  Seth's revised forest classification  (1968))  must have been  the victim of  the Pench  Dam. A ecologically viable riparian forest along  the Pench River  which  could  have been  the primary habitat of the most endangered big cat  the  Royal Bengal Tiger have  been submerged. Barring the habitat loss to wild animals a beautiful stretch of this type of forest in Soeni and Chindwara (within the Park boundary) has gone under submergence of the Pench Hydroelectric Project. The density of such crop varies from 0.6 to 0.8 and teak forms about 25% to 50% of the total crop (source management plan).

Large chunk of Overwood which  is mainly dominated by teak (Tectona grandis) and its  associates of such as Dhawra (Anogeissus latifoilia), Lendia (Lagerstroemia parviflora), Saja (Terminalia tomentosa), Salai (Boswellia serrata), Moyan (Lannea coromandelica), Mahua (Madhuca indica), Dhoban (Dalbergia paniculata), Mokha (Schrebera swietenioides), Siras (Albezzia lebbec), Tendu (Diospyrus melanoxylum), Bija (Pterocarpus marsupium), Tinsa (Ougeinia oojeinensis) and Haldu (Adina cordifolia) and  the trees of Koha (Terminalia arjuna) and Jamun (Syzygium cumini) which are found along the large water bodies, riverbanks and small islands in the riverbed have come under submergence and it is now totally gone.

In the form of Underwood a middle density comprising of Anola (Emblica officinalis), Dhaman (Grewia tiliaefolia), Kumbhi (Cassia fistula), Ghont (Zyzyphus xylopyra), Baranga (Kydia calycina), Amaltas (Cassia fistula), Ashta (Bauhinia racemosa), Dainkamali (Gardenia resinifera), etc. have been submerged.  A chunk of Bamboo (Dendrocalamus  strictus) that could  have been growing along the riparian zone providing food to animals has been submerged.

Shrubby species such as Seharoo (Bauhinia retusa), Bekal (Gymnosporia spinosa), Dhawai (Woodfordia fruticosa), Karonda (Carissa carandas), Jhau (Tamarix ericoides) that occurs in river beds could have been submerged.

Grasses such as Apluda mutica, Digitaria setigena, Heteropogon contortus, Eragrostis tenella, Themedia quadrivalvis, Themedia triandra, Setaria glauca, Sorghum nepalense and Schima nervosum that usually occur in the ground floor along with many other less prominent grass species could have gone under submergence although records do not speak much about the grasses that occurred along the Pench River.

Similarly, Climbers like Chilati (Acacia pinnata), Mahulbel (Bauhinia vahlii), Palabel (Butea superba) that are common along the riverbed and water bodies could have been submerged.

8.3. Status of wildlife and their habitat in the submergence area

Literature survey on fishes and water fowl and the field visits (survey for ungulates) indicated the following result;

8.3.1. Fishes

50 species recorded of which 17 known earlier and 33 added later (ZSI Report). Most species are local while some species such as Labeo, Cirrhina and Catla are introduced. Tor putitora, a game fish is known to exist in the but not yet recorded by PTR and ZSI. The largest number of fish belongs to carp group and includes species of Puntius, Labeo, Cirrhinus, Rasbora, Catla, Barilius, Chela, Danio, Esomus, Aspidopariya, Garra, Salmostoma and Tor. The second largest group is catfish represented by Wallago, Ompok, Mystus, Rita, Clarias, Bagarius, Pseudeutropius and Heteropneustes. Besides these, miscellaneous other species include Channa, Mastacembelus, Chanda, Xenentodon, Nototerus, Oreochromis, Glossogobius, Noemacheilus and Lepidocephalichthys.

The Reservoir in PTR was created by the construction of dam over Pench River. The construction of a dam interferes with the riverine environment, inevitably affecting the fishery resources. The effects of the interference may be variously armful, beneficial or indifferent. The effects of dam construction on populations can be categorized into two headings viz. obstructional and ecological.

Figure 2. Compartments in Pench Tiger Reserve affected by submergence

The dam acts as a physical barrier to migration and tends to prevent access of the fish to their usual breeding, rearing and feeding grounds. The denial of migration may result in permanent and irrevocable reduction of fish stocks ranging from lowering the levels of abundance to complete extermination.

The ecological changes brought about by dam construction adversely affect both the migratory and non - migratory species of fishes. The ecological changes include the conversion of running water body into a water body of slow discharge characteristics, fluctuations in water levels,, inundation of spawning grounds, alterations in the physico-chemical conditions of spawning areas in upper reaches, disappearance of marshlands constituting the spawning and silting patterns. These changes may result in the failure of spawning or ineffective spawning of many fishes of commercial importance. 

The impact of the obstructional effects would be felt only by local migratory fishes like the Mahseer, major carps and some catfishes which are monsoon breeders, generally migrating upstream in search of breeding grounds where as the impact of ecological changes will be felt by almost all the species.

In recent years, some commercially important species such as Catla, Cirrhinus and Labeo have been introduced in the waters of Pench. The commercial varieties generally are fast breeding while the local species cannot breed as fast as them. So, it is to be seen that in a matter of time the fast breeding species would replace the local species.

8.3.2. Status and diversity of waterfowls

Of the 242 species of birds recorded from PTR 60 species of them are waterfowls that directly depend on the wetland for their survival. 36 out of them are residents while 24 are winter migrants. The wetland serves as feeding and resting station for the migrant species and their seasonal influx serves to increase the diversity of the wetland site.  The waterfowls recorded from PTR belongs to 15 families viz. Podicipitidae, Phalacrocoracidae, Ardeidae, Ciconiidae, Threskiornithidae, Anatidae, Gruidae, Rallidae, Jacanidae, Charadridae, Rostratulidae, Recurvirostridae, Burhinidae, Glareolidae, and Laridae. Besides waterfowls, a large number rof other bird species such as osprey, fishing eagle and kingfishers visit the reservoir and are totally or casually dependent on it for survival. Although resident species found in the wetland area do not take very long flights like migratory birds, they do undertake local movements depending on drought/water conditions.

The waterfowls are valuable and highly visible part of the wetland environment where they rest, feed and chatter before resuming their journey. Without nesting territory, wintering grounds and resting areas between the two, waterfowl populations would simply not exist. In the last few decades waterfowl populations have diminished markedly, a direct result of the reduction in the amount of suitable habitat clearly establishing the fact that the wetlands are important for their conservation. Major factors affecting the waterfowls adversely are: (i) Depletion and change in habitat on account of anthropogenic pressure and (ii) poaching or hunting of waterfowls for meat, eggs and feathers. Development and restoration of wetland habitat and effective check on poaching are essential for their conservation.

8.3.3. Mammals in riparian areas    

Although, no aquatic mammals are recorded in PTR, still, its wetland and riparian area attracts most of the 38 species of mammals recorded from the reserve, so far. These animals differ from small sized species like rodents and hares to larger one like Wild pigs (Sus scrofa) and Chital (Cervus axis). A large number of grazing and browsing animals like Blue Bull (Bosalephus tragocamelus) and Sambar (Cervus unicolor) are supported by the riparian areas. These animals frequent the riparian area mainly in search food, water and protective cover, which also act as limiting factors affecting distribution.

The vegetation growing around the riparian area provides food to the herbivores and protective cover to both herbivores and carnivores. The growth of vegetation is directly related to the availability of water. During the monsoon, the vegetation is at its luxuriant best and there is no shortage of food plant. However, with the advent of winter, water level starts plunging and by mid-summer, when the temperature remains very high, there is acute shortage of water, vegetation dries creating such a condition that the animals are in difficult position. Population of both the herbivores and carnivores shrink in size only reviving with the onset of rains. In this manner, variations in climatic conditions act as limiting factors controlling the distribution of mammalian species.

The wild animals of Pench are known to congregate nearby the reservoir between the month of May and last week of June as the water level is known to drop drastically. By the second week of June, pre-monsoon showers are received in the area and the animals disperse into inner reaches of the forest as the food become plentiful with the onset of rains bringing the life back to the jungle. The post monsoon season brings about a period of abundance when food, shelter and water are plenty resulting into growth and multiplication of all forms of life (Maximum biomass period). The coolest month being December with a minimum temperature being 11.8⁰C and this marks the onset of food and water scarcity for many animals which becomes acute by the winter season. The mean normal annual rainfall of the area is 1319.75mm. The maximum water is received between Junes - Septembers.

The data that was collected revealed that the Chital used the drawdown areas the most owing to growth of plenty of Cyonodactylon grass. Heteropogon contortus grass that was found in maximum in the fringe forest where the plots were laid could be the good food source for the Sambar and Nigai that were found to use the fringe forest more than the drawdown areas. The dung/pellet/dropping count showed Langur and the Wild Pigs use the submerged lesser than Sambar, Chital and the Nilgai.

 Figure 3. Habitat use by ungulate species in Pench Tiger Reserve

 Figure 4. Grass availability in sampling plots in different habitat types in Pench Tiger Reserve.

Figure 3 above indicate Chital using both the habitat but more towards the drawdown areas where the opening is more and also indicate that the Chital dominate the ungulate population. The ungulate concentration is high towards the reservoir.

Figure 4 shows the grass coverage in all the plots almost equal indicating that the fringe  forest are  as good as the drawdown  and open areas which tells  that  the drawdown areas used  more than fringe forest  not  because  of food  but for other reasons which  could  be easy escape,  availability of  water  and  good  breeding ground.

8.3.4. Reptiles

By way of reptiles, it is learnt that Mugger (Crocodylus palustris) is the top carnivore in the reservoir and three testudines Indian flap shell turtle (Lissemys punctata), Indian soft shell turtle (Aspideretes gangeticus) and Peninsular black shell turtle (Melanochelys trijuga) which are omnivorous are found.

8.3.5. Amphibians

By way of Amphibians, seven species of order Anura has been recorded from PTR so far that use the aquatic habitat. The most common is Indian bull frog (Rana  tigerina), painted frog (Kaloula pulchera), common tree frog (Polypedates maculatus), Ornate Microhtlid Frog (Microhyla ornata - Dumeril & Bibron), cricket  frog (Rana limnocharis), burrowing frog (Tomopterna breviceps) and  common toad (Bufo melanostictus).

8.3.6. Invertebrates

The ZSI report on lower animals have recorded that there are;  Odonata 10 species, Plecoptera 1 species Orthoptera 44 species Dermaptera 6 species Isoptera 5 species Hemiptera 14 species Coleoptera 32 species, Lepidoptera 45 and 56 species of moths and butterflies.

8.4. Examination of the impacts of the reservoir on wildlife values

8.4.1. Negative Impacts

1. About 54 km² of prime tiger and other animal habitat lost to submergence.
2. Loss of prey base because of which predators must have been lost
3. A chunk of riparian habitat with lots of nesting places and food source lost impacting the wildlife. It needs to be seen if the indigenous fishes are not affected by introduced ones

8.4.2. Positive Impact

1. New habitat of open grassland in the draw-down areas
2. Water availability round the year for wildlife because of collection in the reservoir
3. Increased congregation of ungulate near the reservoir
4. The peripheral shallow area of the reservoir has gradually been colonized by hydrophilic vegetation, grasses and sedges, which provide adequate food for the waterfowls that increased migratory waterfowl visit.
5. Increased fish species diversity because of 33 species introduction

8.4.3. Future impacts of the Reservoir on the wildlife

The future impact of the Dam is obviously visible very positively. With the management manipulations on the vegetation composition on the drawdown areas and the management of aquatic ecology through management intervention, Pench reservoir is expected provide water to a large population of ungulate that will support a good number of tigers. While future of so many protected areas may be grim, Pench may survive better than others with the partial support of water supply to wild animals which is must.

8.5. Problems of the submergence zone

8.5.1. Weed growth

Growth of weeds, like Parthenium, Cassia tora, Dhatura and Argemone mexicana in the draw down area of the submergence which leads to the elimination of the native flora, mainly Cynodon dactylon. Survey revealed at least 10 - 20 percent of the plot to be occupied by weeds as shown below.

Figure 5. Percentage occurrence of weeds in sampling plots in different habitat types in Pench Tiger Reserve.

8.5.2. Degradation of soil condition

Literature survey and field visit reveal that the erosion of soil in the nalas and streams feeding the reservoir is a cause of concern as this is leading to excessive silting in the wetland.

8.5.3. Illegal fishing in the reservoir

Illegal fishing used to be a major problem in the tiger reserve. While this problem has been tackled effectively, the threat from illegal fishing still persists.

Picture 2. Cheetals drinking water in the soon going to be drawn back water (Photo: Management of PTR

Picture 3. Most of the trees in the submergence zone were felled prior to the filling up of the reservoir. The existing trees serve as roosting sites but are rapidly decaying (Photo: Author)

 Picture 4. Terns recently exposed due to lack of proper habitat (Photo courtesy: Park Management of PTR)

8.5.7.     Inadequate knowledge about the wetland

The ZSI study provides a faunal list but the wetland dynamics and detailed inventory of the insect, arachnid, fish and amphibian fauna is required for proper scientific management of the wetland. But the effect of agricultural pollutants including the use of pesticides in the areas upstream before the river enters the park has to be studied.

Picture 5. This could have been a continuous stretch before the reservoir was built  (Photo: Author)

Picture 6. Pench submergence area now with the back water flow of the Dam (Photo: Author).

9.            Suggestions to mitigate the problem after the creation of Dam 

9.1.         Construction of earthen dykes

 To retain receding water; a series of dykes in each major nallah flowing into the Pench River is proposed in order to retain water and reduce siltation in the reservoir. This will include anicuts and earthen dykes in the submergence area. This will result in; 

i. Stable water bodies for waterfowl, especially migratory ones and also provide easily accessible water to            the wildlife during the pinch period. 

ii. Stable and permanent water that will lead to growth of vegetation in suitable areas of these reservoir               leading to provision of green fodder and cover for the animals including ambush cover to the predators.

iii. Trees of suitable native species can be planted along the upper margins of these water bodies to provide         nesting and roosting sites to the water fowl. The available roosting and nesting sites in the reservoir are             reducing with the dying & decaying of original trees.

Figure 6. Proposed sites for construction of earthen dykes on feeder nallahs to retain water for pinch period in Pench Tiger Reserve.

9.2. Erection of temporary ex-closures

To initiate growth of fodder for pinch period, Blocks of ex-closures, about 10 hac. each are proposed to be erected each year and efforts made to help the growth of native grass and fodder species. This will be especially useful for the herbivores during the summer pinch period when in the resource of weeds, the natural grass growth of Cynodon dactylon is affected and there is a shortage of fodder for the herbivores. These ex-closures will be cleared of weeds by manual uprooting and the native grasses and other vegetation will be encouraged. These exclosures will be taken out every year before submergence and erected soon after water recedes from the area.

9.3. Development of perching, roosting and nesting sites for birds

As almost the entire tree growth of the submergence area was cleared, only a few trees along the banks and the main original river course remain. There are also dying and disappearing; slowly leading to a shortage in nesting and roosting trees, especially for waterfowl like Darters, Cormorants and Painted Starks. In order to mitigate this shortage and provide for new roosting and nesting trees to be adopted and protected with the help of erection of tree guard and soil working of native tree species like Jamun, (Syzygium cumini) Ber (Zygiphus ssp) and Arjun (Terminalia. arjuna).

9.4. Soil and moisture conservation in streams feeding the submergence area

The health of the wetland in Pench Tiger Reserve depends to a large extent, on the quality of water fixing into the submergence. In order to ensure the health of the wetland the silt load of the streams feeding the Pench river has to be reduced. While some amount soil moisture conservation activities has been done in the preceding years, one comprehensive sequence of treatment measures needs to be implemented. For this the nala feeding the Pench River & their Catchment needs to be treated urgently; for this the sequence of operations is proposed in following areas (compartments with pink colour).

Figure 7. Soil and moisture conservation, boulder Check-dam in Pench Tiger Reserve. 

9.5. Protection of nesting sites of water fowl

In addition to birds like the Cormorants, Darter and Painted storks nesting on the margins of the submergence area, several species of birds use the islands in the reservoir for nesting. Most prominent amongst these is the Little Tern (Sterna albifrons) the Indian River Turn and the Small Indian pantincole. These birds use the islands in the reservoir for nesting. As their egg laying time is well into the dry season, most of the islands used by these birds develops a land bridge with the mainland as the water recedes. This leads to serious problems with predators like Jackal and Jungle Cat destroying the eggs of these ground nesters. This is especially true of an island located near Sambar matta, which is the favoured nesting ground of the highly endangered Little Tern. These islands are proposed to be protected from such predators by erecting a temporary fencing structure every year during egg laying season and taking out the chain link fencing as the season over and area submerged. 

9.6. Patrolling of wetland

The submergence area is subjected to grave threat from illegal fishermen. As the submergence straddles two states protection requires coordination and fast response. The reserve has 4 motor boats without board motors. These have their limitations especially in areas where the depth of water is low as is the case from November to June. It is therefore proposed that for effective patrolling of the reservoir 2 swamp boats are to be acquired. These will cost about Rs.9.0 lakhs each, and will be used to effectively eliminate illegal fishing in the reservoir. Further for effective patrolling; two water scooters are also proposed to be acquired for quick apprehension of the illegal intruders.  In addition for effective patrolling camping equipments like tents, camp cots, solar lanterns etc and equipments like wireless, batteries, search lights etc are proposed to be provided to the staff patrolling the wetland. In addition a provision for the maintenance cost of the boats and equipments including POL has to be provided.

9.7. Study of the Pench Wetland

In order to properly understand the wetland dynamics and for the management of the wetland, a comprehensive study of the wetland is urgently required to be commissioned. A reputed national institute specializing in such studies needs to go in to the dynamics of the wetland and a detailed inventory of the insect, arachnids, fish and amphibian fauna to be done. Further the effect of agricultural pollutants including the use of pesticides in the areas upstream before the river enters the park and mitigation measures have to be studied.

9.8. Weed eradication

The total submergence area of the Totaladoh dam in PTR is 54.5 sq km. Out of which about 50% area is under permanent submergence and remaining are opens when water recedes. The water regime this area is high in compression to surrounding forest area. There is a lot of silt brought with the debris during rainy season. Due to change in water regime and supply of seeds of weeds like Parthanium, Cassia tora, Dhatura metel etc form the catchments area; brought with silts, a lot of weeds have come up in these areas. These weeds are suppressing the growth of native vegetation and being unpalatable, bring a lot of adverse effects on the diets of herbivores.

9.9. Public Awareness and Education

In order to ensure to continued support of the local population and in order to educate and offer recreational avenues to students, an intensive public awareness and education programme is absolutely necessary. In order to achieve this, apart from publicity material like brochures, posters etc., regular camping and nature camps of school and college going children including those residing in villages close to the park is proposed. The existing building at Khawasa will be converted in to a facility that will enable students to camp. From here they would be conducted in side the park. They existing mini bus is inadequate for this purpose and there for an additional vehicle is proposed to be acquired for this purpose. Further, appropriate training programmes for such students will be organised.

9.10. Community participation

9.10.1. Eco-tourism

The local community is already involved in eco-tourism. They are at present involved directly as Park Guides and as boatmen. This association will be expanded and more local villagers will be involved in future especially in the promotion of boating facilities for tourists and training of the local youth as Guides for Bird Watching trips. The boats have already been purchased. A few rafts for the rafting done in Pench river is proposed. At present there is only a single raft and rafting is conducted by the Gumtara Eco-development Committee.

9.10.2. Village Eco-development

Eco-development is designed to reduce negative impacts of local people of 15 villages 5 Km around the submergence area on biodiversity and increase collaboration of local people in conservation by conducting participatory micro planning and providing implementation support in Ecodevelopment villages. Local people's reciprocal commitments can be achieved by implementing the alternative livelihoods and resource used; financed by village ecodevelopment fund. To strengthen the essential infrastructure of the villages, village ecodevelopment works should be carried out. From the ecodevelopment fund water harvesting structure, irrigation facilities, farm improvement, Fuel and fodder programme, capacity building and poverty elevation programme will be carried out as per the requirement and Micro-plan of the village.

10. Summary

The present study titled ‘Evaluation of the impact of submergence on wildlife values in Pench Tiger Reserve and suggesting remedial measures’ was undertaken with the following objectives:

• Examine type and extent of vegetation/forest submerged.
• Assess the status of wildlife and their habitat in the submergence area.
• Examine the impacts of the reservoir on wildlife values and
• To suggest remedial measures on the basis of the findings of the above objectives

Due to time constraints, the scope of this study was limited to;

• Examination of the past and present scenario through literature survey
• Assessment of status of wildlife through field data collection and discussion with the Park Management
• Identification of problems on wildlife caused by the reservoir through discussion with the Park Officials and subsequently, the field visit and make suggestions for enhancement of wildlife value on the basis of this study and the discussions with the Park Officials, and the faculty members of the Institute.

The Pench River was dammed at Todladoh with the main objective of generating hydro power electricity as joint venture between the two states of Maharastra and Madhya Pradesh. The project started in 1973, however, the dam became functional in 1991. Of the total area submerged which is about 54.57 km², 75% of the submergence area falls within the Park boundaries covering about 17.24 km² in Karmajhiri Range and 37.27 km² in Gumtara Range and remaining 25% (19.93 km²) falls in Jawaharlal NP in Maharashtra.

To assess the terrestrial habitat use by various animals and to compare the habitat condition of the draw down areas and the fringe forest a circular plot of 10 m radius were laid at compartment 9 (Teak Forest), compartment 12 (Mixed Forest), compartment 5 (Fringe forest area) and compartment 2 (Drawdown area) at Karmajhiri Range. To find out the use of fringe habitat all pellet/dung groups for all animals that were found in the plots were counted irrespective of freshness or the dryness. By ocular estimation the percentage of canopy cover was made in two plots of compartments 9 and 12 (fringe area plots). In order to compare the ground cover in the fringe forest and the drawdown area and to assess the habitat use by animals the following data were recorded in all the plots;

1. % of grass (dry and wet)
2. % litter
3. % barren soil
4. % weeds 
5. Number of pellets in each plot of individual animal species.

Grass species where noted to find the difference in species composition if any between the fringe forest and the drawdown areas. The number of pellet/dung groups for all animals were counted and compared for the two different habitats to assess the habitat use by animals. The dam has  submerged at  least three  categories  of  land  viz. reserve  forest, protected  forest  and  revenue  land  covering  two  Ranges of  Gumtara and Karmajhiri in the Madhya  Pradesh part  of  the   Tiger  Reserve. The construction of the dam has brought about both negative and positive impacts on the habitat of Pench Tiger Reserve. About 54 km² of prime tiger and other animal habitat was lost to submergence. This led to loss of prey base, nesting sites to grassland avifauna and also affected the indigenous fish fauna. Growth of weeds, like Parthenium, Cassia tora, Dhatura and Argemone mexicana in the draw down area of the submergence which leads to the elimination of the native flora, mainly Cynodon dactylon. Survey revealed at least 10 - 20 percent of the plot to be occupied by weeds. The impact has also benefited by creating new habitat of open grassland in the drawdown areas and with water available round the year there are increased congregation of ungulate near the reservoir. The peripheral shallow area of the reservoir has gradually been colonized by hydrophilic vegetation, grasses and sedges, which provide adequate food for the waterfowls that has resulted in increased migratory waterfowl visit. The study proposes the following suggestions for the enhancement of wildlife value along the dam in Pench Tiger Reserve;

·         Construction of earthen dykes

·         Erection of temporary ex-closures

·         Development of perching, roosting and nesting sites for birds

·         Soil and moisture conservation in streams feeding the submergence area

·         Protection of nesting sites of water fowl

·         Study of the Pench Wetland

·         Weed eradication

·         Public Awareness and Education

·         Community participation

11.          References

Alfred, J. R. B. and Chandra, K. (2002)."Faunal Survey: Focus on insects, Fishes, Reptiles and Amphibians; conservation status and distribution of rare and endangered animals and develop illustrative field guide and contribute for museum collection for fauna occurring in Pench Tiger Reserve" (Soeni; Madhya Pradesh), Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata.

Alfred, J. R. B. and Chandra, K. (2002)."Study on Wetlands and Riparian Areas in Pench  Tiger Reserve with focus on diversity and status of fishes, waterfowls and mammals (Soeni; Madhya Pradesh)" Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata.

Banerjee, A. and L. Iyer (2005). History, Institutions, and Economic Performance: The Legacy of Colonial Land Tenure Systems in India. American Economic Review (forthcoming).

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Chhatwal, G.R. (1998). "Encyclopedia of Environmental Biology" (Vol. 2). Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi

Dixit, Ajaya. "Big dams, bad economics. Why build high dams if you are going to waste water and electricity". HIMAL 11/3 MARCH 1998. Editorial, Journal, Bombay Natural History Society. 100 (1). APR, 2003.

Duflo, Esther and R. Pande (2005). Dams, MIMEO, MIT Poverty Action Lab.

Ligon, Franklin K., Dietrich, William E. and Trush, William J. (1995). "Downstream Ecological Effects of Dams: A geomorphic perspective".

Mason, C. F., Last, N. I. and Macdonald, S. M. (1986). "Mercury, Cadmium and Lead in British Otters". Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. (1986) 37:844 - 849.

Mitra, A. K. "Impact of Waste Water Inflow on Water Quality of River Brahmani". INDIAN J. ENVIRON HLTH. Vol.39. No.4, 257 - 264 (1997)

Nilsson, C. and Dynesius, M. (1994). "Ecological effects of river regulation on mammals and birds: A review". Regulated River Research and Management. Vol. 9. 45. 53 (1994).

Panday, Sanjeeva. (1992). "Changes in waterbird diversity due to the construction Pong Dam Reservoir, Himachal Pradesh, India". Biological Conservation 1993, 66, 125 – 130

Perez, J. J. and Lacomba, J. I. (No year).  "The influence of water demands on otter (Lutra

lutra) distribution in Mediterranean Spain".

Polechla, Paul J. Jr. (1987) "Fur trade records from Arkansas Factory, Arkansas Post, Lousiana Territory, 1805 - 1810". Proceedings Arkansas Academy of Science, Vol. 41, 1987.

Reeves, Randall R., Chaudhry, Abdul A., and Khalid, M. (1991). "Competing for water on the Indus plain: Is  there a future for Pakistan's River Dolphins?". Environment

 Conservation, Vol. 18, No. 4 Winter 1991.

Reeves, Randall R. and Leatherwood, S. (No year). "Dams and River Dolphins: Can they 
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population viability of the otter in rivers in eastern Spain".

Shrivastava, J. L. (2002). "Floristic survey, vegetation description, conservation status and distribution of rare and endangered plant and plant communities in Pench Tiger Reserve, Soeni (M.P.)" State Forest Research Institute, Jabalpur (M.P.)

Thakkar, H. (2000). Assessment of Irrigation in India. World Commission on Dams.

World Commission on Dams (2000b). Large Dams: India’s Experience. World Commission on Dams. 

Acknowledgements

I am very grateful to the Course Director, Sh. A. Udhayan for continuously supporting and boosting my morale all the time and especially so during the tour of Pench to work for this very exercise. Guidance and company given by Sh. N.K. Vasu, Sh. Pratap Singh while on tour is gratefully acknowledged.

The Field Director, Pench Tiger Reserve, Sh. N.S. Duungriyal and handful of his dedicated subordinates needs a special mention for providing all kinds of support ranging from sharing of past photograph to sharing the entire past documents in spite of the heavy documents having to be carried from Soeni to Karmajhiri. Special mention of Sh. K. K. Sahib is hereby made and his contributions to this work gratefully acknowledged. 

Back in the Institute, my honest acknowledgements to Dr. S.A. Hussain. Without his support this paper could not have been put into proper shape. Sh. Ashgar Nawab for reading my paper and coming out with brilliant suggestions.